The Biodiversity and Geochemistry of Cryoconite Holes in Queen Maud Land, East Antarctica

Cryoconite holes are oases of microbial diversity on ice surfaces. In contrast to the Arctic, where during the summer most cryoconite holes are ‘open’, in Continental Antarctica they are most often ‘lidded’ or completely frozen year-round. Thus, they represent ideal systems for the study of microbial community assemblies as well as carbon accumulation, since individual cryoconite holes can be isolated from external inputs for years. Here, we use high-throughput sequencing of the 16S and 18S rRNA genes to describe the bacterial and eukaryotic community compositions in cryoconite holes and surrounding lake, snow, soil and rock samples in Queen Maud Land. We cross correlate our findings with a broad range of geochemical data including for the first time 13C and 14C analyses of Antarctic cryoconites. We show that the geographic location has a larger effect on the distribution of the bacterial community compared to the eukaryotic community. Cryoconite holes are distinct from the local soils in both 13C and 14C and their isotopic composition is different from similar samples from the Arctic. Carbon contents were generally low (≤0.2%) and older (6–10 ky) than the surrounding soils, suggesting that the cryoconite holes are much more isolated from the atmosphere than the soils

Integrated 'Omics', Targeted Metabolite and Single-cell Analyses of Arctic Snow Algae Functionality and Adaptability

Snow algae are poly-extremophilic microalgae and important primary colonizers and producers on glaciers and snow fields. Depending on their pigmentation they cause green or red mass blooms during the melt season. This decreases surface albedo and thus further enhances snow and ice melting. Although the phenomenon of snow algal blooms has been known for a long time, large aspects of their physiology and ecology sill remain cryptic. This study provides the first in-depth and multi-omics investigation of two very striking adjacent green and red snow fields on a glacier in Svalbard. We have assessed the algal community composition of green and red snow including their associated microbiota, i.e., bacteria and archaea, their metabolic profiles (targeted and non-targeted metabolites) on the bulk and single-cell level, and assessed the feedbacks between the algae and their physico-chemical environment including liquid water content, pH, albedo, and nutrient availability. We demonstrate that green and red snow clearly vary in their physico-chemical environment, their microbial community composition and their metabolic profiles. For the algae this likely reflects both different stages of their life cycles and their adaptation strategies. Green snow represents a wet, carbon and nutrient rich environment and is dominated by the algae Microglena sp. with a metabolic profile that is characterized by key metabolites involved in growth and proliferation. In contrast, the dry and nutrient poor red snow habitat is colonized by various Chloromonas species with a high abundance of storage and reserve metabolites likely to face upcoming severe conditions. Combining a multitude of techniques we demonstrate the power of such complementary approaches in elucidating the function and ecology of extremophiles such as green and red snow algal blooms, which play crucial roles in glacial ecosystems

Novel insights in cryptic diversity of snow and glacier ice algae communities combining 18S rRNA gene and ITS2 amplicon sequencing

Melting snow and glacier surfaces host microalgal blooms in polar and mountainous regions. The aim of this study was to determine the dominant taxa at the species level in the European Arctic and the Alps. A standardized protocol for amplicon metabarcoding using the 18S rRNA gene and ITS2 markers was developed. This is important because previous biodiversity studies have been hampered by the dominance of closely related algal taxa in snow and ice. Due to the limited resolution of partial 18S rRNA Illumina sequences, the hypervariable ITS2 region was used to further discriminate between the genotypes. Our results show that red snow was caused by the cosmopolitan Sanguina nivaloides (Chlamydomonadales, Chlorophyta) and two as of yet undescribed Sanguina species. Arctic orange snow was dominated by S. aurantia, which was not found in the Alps. On glaciers, at least three Ancylonema species (Zygnematales, Streptophyta) dominated. Golden-brown blooms consisted of Hydrurus spp. (Hydrurales, Stramenophiles) and these were mainly an Arctic phenomenon. For chrysophytes, only the 18S rRNA gene but not ITS2 sequences were amplified, showcasing how delicate the selection of eukaryotic ‘universal’ primers for community studies is and that primer specificity will affect diversity results dramatically. We propose our approach as a ‘best practice’

Long time series (1984–2020) of albedo variations on the Greenland ice sheet from harmonized Landsat and Sentinel 2 imagery

Albedo is a key factor in modulating the absorption of solar radiation on ice surfaces. Satellite measurements have shown a general reduction in albedo across the Greenland ice sheet over the past few decades, particularly along the western margin of the ice sheet, a region known as the Dark Zone (albedo < 0.45). Here we chose a combination of Landsat 4–8 and Sentinel 2 imagery to enable us to derive the longest record of albedo variations in the Dark Zone, running from 1984 to 2020. We developed a simple, pragmatic and efficient sensor transformation to provide a long time series of consistent, harmonized satellite imagery. Narrow to broadband conversion algorithms were developed from regression models of harmonized satellite data and in situ albedo from the Program for Monitoring of the Greenland Ice Sheet (PROMICE) automatic weather stations. The albedo derived from the harmonized Landsat and Sentinel 2 data shows that the maximum extent of the Dark Zone expanded rapidly between 2005 and 2007, increasing to ~280% of the average annual maximum extent of 2900 km2 to ~8000 km2 since. The Dark Zone is continuing to darken slowly, with the average annual minimum albedo decreasing at a rate of (p = 0.16, 2001–2020)

Formation of Silica-Lysozyme Composites Through Co-Precipitation and Adsorption

Interactions between silica and proteins are crucial for the formation of biosilica and the production of novel functional hybrid materials for a range of industrial applications. The proteins control both precipitation pathway and the properties of the resulting silica-organic composites. Here we present data on the formation of silica-lysozyme composites through two different synthesis approaches (co-precipitation vs. adsorption) and show that the chemical and structural properties of these composites, when analyzed using a combination of synchrotron-based scattering (total scattering and SAXS), spectroscopic, electron microscopy and potentiometric methods vary dramatically. We document that while lysozyme was not incorporated into nor did its presence alter the molecular structure of silica, it strongly enhanced the aggregation of silica particles due to electrostatic and potentially hydrophobic interactions, leading to the formation of composites with characteristics differing from pure silica. The differences increased with increasing lysozyme content for both synthesis approaches. Yet, the absolute changes differ substantially between the two sets of composites, as lysozyme did not just affect aggregation during co-precipitation but also particle growth and likely polymerization during co-precipitation. Our results improve the fundamental understanding of how organic macromolecules interact with dissolved and nanoparticulate silica and how these interactions control the formation pathway of silica-organic composites from sodium silicate solutions, a widely available and cheap starting material

The efficient long-term inhibition of forsterite dissolution by common soil bacteria and fungi at earth surface conditions

San Carlos forsterite was dissolved in initially pure H2O in a batch reactor in contact with the atmosphere for five years. The reactive fluid aqueous pH remained relatively stable at pH 6.7 throughout the experiment. Aqueous Mg concentration maximized after approximately two years time at 3x10-5 mol/kg, whereas aqueous Si concentrations increased continuously with time, reaching 2x10-5 mol/kg after 5 years. Element release rates closely matched those determined on this same forsterite sample during short-term abiotic open system experiments for the first 10 days, then slowed substantially such that the Mg and Si release rates are approximately an order of magnitude slower than that calculated from the short-term abiotic experiments. Post-experiment analysis reveals that secondary hematite, a substantial biotic community, and minor amorphous silica formed on the dissolving forsterite during the experiment. The biotic community included bacteria, dominated by Rhizobiales (Alphaproteobacteria), and fungi, dominated by Trichocomaceae, that grew in a carbon and nutrient-limited media on the dissolving forsterite. The Mg isotope composition of the reactive fluid was near constant after 2 years but 0.25‰ heavier in δ26Mg than the dissolving forsterite. Together these results suggest long-term forsterite dissolution in natural Earth surface systems maybe substantially slower that estimated from short-term abiotic experiments due to the growth of biotic communities on their surfaces

The Impact of Bare Ice Duration and Geo-Topographical Factors on the Darkening of the Greenland Ice Sheet

Dark (low albedo) surface ice on the Greenland Ice Sheet enhances melting and subsequent runoff, a major mass loss contributor during the ablation season. The accumulation of both biological (e.g., glacier ice algae) and abiotic (e.g., mineral dust) light-absorbing particulates are important darkening factors, that are potentially influenced by the duration of snow-free, bare ice (a phenological factor), and other geo-topographical factors such as elevation, slope, aspect and the distance from the ice margin. Here, we present the first medium-resolution (30 m) analysis of the phenological and geo-topographical controls on the distribution of dark ice in SE and SW Greenland from statistical analysis of data derived from a harmonized satellite albedo product and ArcticDEM. The duration of bare ice primarily controls the distribution of dark surface ice, allowing for algae growth on inland ice surfaces in particular, whereas geo-topographical factors are only secondary controls

Ice sheets as a significant source of highly reactive nanoparticulate iron to the oceans

The Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets cover ~\n10% of global land surface, but are rarely considered as active components of the global iron cycle. The ocean waters around both ice sheets harbour highly productive coastal ecosystems, many of which are iron limited. Measurements of iron concentrations in subglacial runoff from a large Greenland Ice Sheet catchment reveal the potential for globally significant export of labile iron fractions to the near-coastal euphotic zone. We estimate that the flux of bioavailable iron associated with glacial runoff is 0.40–2.54?Tg per year in Greenland and 0.06–0.17?Tg per year in Antarctica. Iron fluxes are dominated by a highly reactive and potentially bioavailable nanoparticulate suspended sediment fraction, similar to that identified in Antarctic icebergs. Estimates of labile iron fluxes in meltwater are comparable with aeolian dust fluxes to the oceans surrounding Greenland and Antarctica, and are similarly expected to increase in a warming climate with enhanced melting

Goethite Mineral Dissolution to Probe the Chemistry of Radiolytic Water in Liquid-Phase Transmission Electron Microscopy

Liquid-Phase Transmission Electron Microscopy (LP-TEM) enables in situ observations of the dynamic behavior of materials in liquids at high spatial and temporal resolution. During LP-TEM, incident electrons decompose water molecules into highly reactive species. Consequently, the chemistry of the irradiated aqueous solution is strongly altered, impacting the reactions to be observed. However, the short lifetime of these reactive species prevent their direct study. Here, the morphological changes of goethite during its dissolution are used as a marker system to evaluate the influence of radiation on the changes in solution chemistry. At low electron flux density, the morphological changes are equivalent to those observed under bulk acidic conditions, but the rate of dissolution is higher. On the contrary, at higher electron fluxes, the morphological evolution does not correspond to a unique acidic dissolution process. Combined with kinetic simulations of the steady state concentrations of generated reactive species in the aqueous medium, the results provide a unique insight into the redox and acidity interplay during radiation induced chemical changes in LP-TEM. The results not only reveal beam-induced radiation chemistry via a nanoparticle indicator, but also open up new perspectives in the study of the dissolution process in industrial or natural settings